The history and implications of secularisation

Westphalian secularism is neither universal nor 'rational' but Western, the product of a historical process, and it is unintended, cumulative, and incomplete. The recollection of its contingency, specificity and features is an essential prerequisite to overcoming the consistent failure of current international relations, conflict resolution, social integration and related policies, when these are applied to problems with a religious dimension. From the 4 th to the 16 th century Christian theology pervaded all aspects of thought, from the natural sciences to philosophy. When the Reformation destroyed Catholic doctrinal monopoly, much of European thought broke down. 'Secularisation' is the process whereby Europe's Weltanschauung was rebuilt without theology. European conquest spread secular norms across the world, often with stabilising effect. However, when the historical contingency of secularisation is forgotten, and its norms are mistaken for universal ones, conflicts with a religious dimension become irresolvable. To illustrate secularisation's history and implications, I discuss works by the Leiden Circle around the turn of the 17 th century. The Dutch had to learn to neutralis